alcibiades the younger

His enemies took note of this and kept it in mind for a future occasion. for Refusal of Military Service Introduction. Isocrates asserts that Alcibiades was never a pupil of Socrates. With one exception, Alcibiades's role in the war ended with his command. A portion of the citizens of the city, demoralized and hungry, decided to surrender the city to Alcibiades for similar terms as the Selymbrians had received. [114], In 406 BC Alcibiades set out from Athens with 1,500 hoplites and a hundred ships. [118], Responsibility for the defeat ultimately fell on Alcibiades, and his enemies used the opportunity to attack him and have him removed from command, although some modern scholars believe that Alcibiades was unfairly blamed for Antiochus's mistake. He also confirmed his reputation with women (which the rich Athenian whom he had married appreciated only too well) by seducing the wife of the Spartan king Agis II, who was at Decelea with his army. During the course of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades changed his political allegiance several times. The Peloponnesians fought to prevent their ships from being towed away, and Pharnabazus's troops came up to support them. [146] Central to the depiction of the Athenian statesman is Cornelius Nepos' famous phrase that Alcibiades "surpassed all the Athenians in grandeur and magnificence of living". The army, stating that they had not revolted from the city but that the city had revolted from them, resolved to stand by the democracy while continuing to prosecute the war against Sparta. Alcibiades has many admirers but … [88] While this was certainly his goal, it was again a means to an end, that end being to avoid prosecution upon his return to Athens. [i], In 404 BC, as he was about to set out for the Persian court, his residence was surrounded and set on fire. He was appointed to share the command, but, shortly before the expedition was due to sail, the hermae (busts of Hermes, messenger of Zeus and patron of all who use the roads, set up in public places throughout the city) were found to have been mutilated. [36] This request was denied, and the fleet set sail soon after, with the charges unresolved.[44]. [73] Phrynichus in desperation wrote again to Astyochus, offering him a chance to destroy the Athenian fleet at Samos. With the support of these men and the Athenian soldiers in general, the Samian democrats were able to defeat the 300 Samian oligarchs who attempted to seize power there. Seeing Athens thus beleaguered on a second front, members of the Delian League began to contemplate revolt. When the Athenians at Aegospotami (405) facing the Spartans in the Hellespont grew increasingly careless, he warned them of their danger. When he reached the age of 30, however, he abandoned the philosophies of Socrates and his ego began to take over. [170], Alcibiades has been depicted regularly in art, both in Medieval and Renaissance works, and in several significant works of modern literature as well. Even in the wake of his recent victories, Alcibiades was exceedingly careful in his return, mindful of the changes in government, the charges still technically hanging over him, and the great injury he had done to Athens. When some Athenian officers in the fleet began to plan an oligarchic coup, he held out hopes that if the democracy was overthrown he could secure financial support from Persia. [8] K. Paparrigopoulos, a major modern Greek historian, underlines his "spiritual virtues" and compares him with Themistocles, but he then asserts that all these gifts created a "traitor, an audacious and impious man". [72], Phrynichus, fearing that Alcibiades if restored would avenge himself upon him for his opposition, sent a secret letter to the Spartan Admiral, Astyochus, to tell him that Alcibiades was ruining their cause by making Tissaphernes the friend of the Athenians, and containing an express revelation of the rest of the intrigue. [93], After an interlude of several months in which the Peloponnesians constructed new ships and the Athenians besieged cities and raised money throughout the Aegean, the next major sea battle took place the spring of 410 BC at Cyzicus. [160], Kagan believes that while Alcibiades was a commander of considerable ability, he was no military genius, and his confidence and ambitions went far beyond his skills. [151] Russell Meiggs, a British ancient historian, asserts that the Athenian statesman was absolutely unscrupulous despite his great charm and brilliant abilities. [78], In spite of the failure of the negotiations, the conspirators succeeded in overthrowing the democracy and imposing the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred, among the leaders of which were Phrynichus and Pisander. [8] After the death of Cleinias at the Battle of Coronea (447 BC), Pericles and Ariphron became his guardians. Evidently Alcibiades had gravely misjudged his standing with the satrap, and he was arrested on arrival. , Frigia , Turcia ) a fost un general și politician atenian, șef al grupării democratice. [65][64], Alcibiades seemed to assume that the "radical democracy" would never agree to his recall to Athens. In his native Athens in the early 410s BC, he advocated an aggressive foreign policy and was a prominent proponent of the Sicilian Expedition, but he fled to Sparta after his political enemies brought charges of sacrilege against him. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. When Alcibiades entered public life, he had two rivals;one was Nicias, a man advanced in years, and one of thebest generals of his day, the other Phæax, a youth justbeginning to make his way. Alcibiades, however, foreseeing that he would be outlawed, gave information to the friends of the Syracusans in Messina, who succeeded in preventing the admission of the Athenians. One may wonder, however, why the speech was ever attributed to Andocides. Upon hearing his speech the troops immediately elected him General alongside Thrasybulus and the others. [65] In general, those were generously welcomed by the Achaemenid kings, and received land grants to support them, and ruled in various cities of Asia Minor. Alcibiades the Younger, who is prosecuted in these two speeches, was probably born in 416 b.c., a year before his father’s disgrace and banishment from Athens.At the time of this trial (395 b.c. In the ensuing fighting, Lysander gained an entire victory. [j] According to Vlachos, the expedition had nothing of the extravagant or adventurous and constituted a rational strategic decision based on traditional Athenian aspirations. Nicias, the cautious commander, wrought peace with Sparta, which Alcibiades, the Spartan proxenos, undid. According to the oldest of these, the Spartans and specifically Lysander were responsible. Alcibiades tried to convince the satrap that it was in Persia's interest to wear both Athens and Sparta out at first, "and after docking the Athenian power as much as he could, forthwith to rid the country of the Peloponnesians". There he advised the Spartans to send a general to help the Syracusans and also to fortify Decelea in Attica, two serious blows to Athens. In Sparta too, however, Alcibiades soon made powerful enemies and felt forced to defect to Persia. Author of. Alcibiade (latină: Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides, greacă: Αλκιβιάδης Κλεινίου Σκαμβωνίδης) (n. 450 î.Hr. Alcibiades describes the various plots he attempted to get Socrates, who was supposed to be the lover, to seduce him. Moreover, the radical leader Cleon and his successors carried on a bitter feud with him, which at the critical period undermined Athenian confidence. [127] Alcibiades was one of several Greek aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other famous ones being Themistocles, Hippias, Demaratos and Gongylos. edit. [167], Alcibiades has not been spared by ancient comedy and stories attest to an epic confrontation between Alcibiades and Eupolis resembling that between Aristophanes and Cleon. As for. [43], One night during preparations for the expedition, the hermai, heads of the god Hermes on a plinth with a phallus, were mutilated throughout Athens. At Samos, however, a similar coup instigated by the conspirators did not go forward so smoothly. [8] On the other hand, Paparrigopoulos believes that the Sicilian Expedition, prompted by Alcibiades, was a strategic mistake. ; he was an Athenian born and raised. Alcibiades is a dialogue between the notorious character after whom it is named and Socrates, set at a time when Alcibiades was still a young man, before his entry into his political and military career, and Socrates, about 17 years older, was already established in the city as a major philosophical practitioner. [171] He has been the main character in historical novels of authors like Anna Bowman Dodd, Gertrude Atherton, Rosemary Sutcliff, Daniel Chavarria, Steven Pressfield and Peter Green. Perhaps the most gifted Athenian of his generation, Alcibiades possessed great charm and brilliant political and military abilities but was absolutely unscrupulous. [149] Kagan acknowledges his rhetorical power, whilst Thomas Habinek, professor of Classics at the University of Southern California, believes that the orator Alcibiades seemed to be whatever his audience needed on any given occasion. Upon arriving on shore he was greeted with a hero's welcome. This made it easier for him, in 415, to persuade the Athenians to send a major military expedition to Sicily against the city of Syracuse. [76] The group was convinced that Alcibiades could not deliver his side of the bargain without demanding exorbitantly high concessions of them and they accordingly abandoned their plans to restore him to Athens. [87] Plutarch tells us that, although his recall had already been passed on motion of Critias, a political ally of his, Alcibiades was resolved to come back with glory. Dinomache, his mother, was the daughter of Megacles. [112] The procession had been replaced by a journey by sea, but this year Alcibiades used a detachment of soldiers to escort the traditional procession. Hyperbolos tried to bring about the ostracism of one of this pair, but Nicias and Alcibiades combined their influence to induce the people to expel Hyperbolos instead. Alcibiades, (born c. 450 bc, Athens [Greece]—died 404, Phrygia [now in Turkey]), brilliant but unscrupulous Athenian politician and military commander who provoked the sharp political antagonisms at Athens that were the main causes of Athens’ defeat by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 bc). Flamboyant, charismatic (and wealthy), this close associate of Socrates persuaded the Athenians to attempt to stand up to the Spartans on land as part of an alliance he was … In fact, he roused them so much that they proposed to sail at once for Piraeus and attack the oligarchs in Athens. Alcibiades however gained no credit, because Phrynichus had anticipated Alcibiades's letter and, before the accusations could arrive, told the army that he had received information of an enemy plan to attack the camp and that they should fortify Samos as quickly as possible. [97] Thrasybulus landed his own force to temporarily relieve pressure on Alcibiades, and meanwhile ordered Theramenes to join up with Athenian land forces nearby and bring them to reinforce the sailors and marines on the beach. [78] This fiasco at the court of Tissaphernes, however, put an end to the negotiations between the conspirators and Alcibiades. He promoted himself as the “unifier,” just as Trump has vowed he will be a force for bipartisanship. In search of funds and needing to force another decisive battle, Alcibiades left Notium and sailed to help Thrasybulus in the siege of Phocaea. A handsome youth like Alcibiades would naturally, then, have attracted many older male admirers. Additionally the Spartans had replaced Mindarus with Lysander, a very capable admiral. [64] Alcibiades was one of several Greek aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other famous ones being Themistocles, Demaratos or Gongylos. Yet before he was 30 he had abandoned the intellectual integrity that Socrates demanded, in favour of the rewards of the kind of politics that Socrates despised. According to Meiggs his actions were dictated by selfish motives and his feud with Cleon and his successors undermined Athens. [b] He was noted, however, for his unruly behavior, which was mentioned by ancient Greek and Latin writers on several occasions. In the wake of Athens's disastrous defeat in Sicily, Alcibiades sailed to Ionia with a Spartan fleet and succeeded in persuading several critical cities to revolt. [56][57], In spite of these valuable contributions to the Spartan cause, Alcibiades fell out of favor with the Spartan government at around this time, ruled by Agis II. The family of Cleinias had old connections with the Spartan aristocracy through a relationship of xenia, and the name "Alcibiades" was of Spartan origin. After his disappearance at Thurii, Alcibiades quickly contacted the Spartans, "promising to render them aid and service greater than all the harm he had previously done them as an enemy" if they would offer him sanctuary. He seized her in court and carried her home again through the crowded Agora. Although in antiquity the work was uniformly attributed to Plato, over the course of the last century … He said their anchorage was a bad one; the place had no harbor and no city, but they had to get their supplies from Sestos". [143][144] Alcibiades excited in his contemporaries a fear for the safety of the political order. The battle was evenly matched, and raged for a long time, but the balance tipped towards the Athenians when Alcibiades sailed into the Hellespont with eighteen triremes. Against Alcibiades XIV. [65], Much about Alcibiades's death is now uncertain, as there are conflicting accounts. Since the speaker It is not, perhaps, material to say anything of the beauty of Alcibiades, only that it bloomed with him at all stages of his life, in his infancy, in his youth, and in his manhood; and, in the peculiar character belonging to each of these periods, gave him in everyone of them, a grace and charm. [128] Though many of his details cannot be independently corroborated, Plutarch's version is this: Lysander sent an envoy to Pharnabazus who then dispatched his brother to Phrygia where Alcibiades was living with his mistress, Timandra. [161], Press argues that "though Alcibiades can be considered a good General on the basis of his performance in the Hellespont, he would not be considered so on the basis of his performance in Sicily", but "the strengths of Alcibiades's performance as a General outweigh his faults". [172], Timeline of Alcibiades' life (c. 450–404 BC), Defection to Achaemenid Empire in Asia Minor. [138] Paparrigopoulos does not accept Demosthenes's opinion, but acknowledges that the Athenian statesman could sufficiently support his case. A young Athenian aristocrat, he came to prominence during the Peloponnesian War (429-404 BC) between Sparta and Athens. Scholars have argued that had the Sicilian expedition been under Alcibiades's command instead of that of Nicias, the expedition might not have met its eventual disastrous fate. Alcibiades is one of the most famous (or infamous) characters of Classical Greece. [158] Vlachos asserts that Alcibiades had already conceived a broader plan: the conquest of the whole West. These factors caused the rapid growth of the Peloponnesian fleet at the expense of the Athenian. Later he moved to Notium, closer to the enemy at Ephesus. [39] It was at his suggestion that the size of the fleet was significantly increased from 60 ships[40] to "140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1300 archers, slingers, and light armed men". Whether a youthful “rebel spirit” or simply a natural born leader, Alcibiades could not be properly swayed, and as Xenophon of Athens claimed, Socrates failed to teach him the importance of morality. The implications of the defeat were severe for Athens. [108] He entered the harbor full of fear till he saw his cousin and others of his friends and acquaintance, who invited him to land. [133] Diodorus and Demosthenes regard him as a great general. Kagan argues that at Notium, Alcibiades committed a serious error in leaving the fleet in the hands of an inexperienced officer, and that most of the credit for the brilliant victory at Cyzicus must be assigned to Thrasybulus. According to Thucydides, Alcibiades, being "exceedingly ambitious", proposed the expedition in Sicily in order "to gain in wealth and reputation by means of his successes". Phæax was of high birth, butinferior to Alcibiades as an orator. This would allow the Persians to more easily conquer the region in the aftermath of the fighting. Mindarus is dead. As he grew up, Alcibiades was strikingly handsome and keen witted, but he was extravagant, irresponsible, and self-centred as well. Omissions? According to Thucydides, only one of the Athenian Generals at Samos, Phrynichus, opposed the plan and argued that Alcibiades cared no more for the proposed oligarchy than for the traditional democracy. Nicias opposed the campaign to Sicily, yet led it; Alcibiades propounded it and was recalled. Alcibiades finds none of his advances working, and ends up switching roles, where … Then he sailed to retrieve Alcibiades and returned with him to Samos. Although the defeat had been minor, it occasioned the removal of not only Alcibiades but also his allies like Thrasybulus, Theramenes and Critias. [82] Shortly after Alcibiades's reinstatement as an Athenian general, the government of the Four Hundred was overthrown and replaced by a broader oligarchy, which would eventually give way to democracy. He then served as an Athenian general (Strategos) for several years, but his enemies eventually succeeded in exiling him a second time. [163][164] Eupolis says that he was "prince of talkers, but in speaking most incapable";[33] which is to say, more eloquent in his private discourses than when orating before the ecclesia. Miltiades the Younger, (born c. 554 bc, Athens [Greece]—died probably 489 bc, Athens), Athenian general who led Athenian forces to victory over the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490.. He is extremely proud of his good looks, noble birth, many friends, possessions and his connection to Pericles, the leader of the Athenian state. We know not what to do". Alcibiades could not practice his master’s virtues, and his example of undisciplined and restless ambition strengthened the charge brought against Socrates in 399 of corrupting the youth of Athens. [134] On the other hand, Diodorus argues that he was "in spirit brilliant and intent upon great enterprises". Alcibiades I by Plato Translated by Benjamin Jowett "Alcibiades" represents Socrates trying to educate the young, ambitious Alcibiades on the meaning of true prosperity, which is justice and self-knowledge. The image captures the standard view of Socrates: as poor and ugly. [47] When the fleet arrived in Catania, it found the state trireme Salaminia waiting to bring Alcibiades and the others indicted for mutilating the hermai or profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries back to Athens to stand trial. [c] It was believed that Socrates took Alcibiades as a student because he believed he could change Alcibiades from his vain ways. This was in direct contradiction to what they had said the day before, and Alcibiades seized on this opportunity to denounce their character, cast suspicion on their aims, and destroy their credibility. [135][138] According to Fotiadis, Alcibiades was an invincible general and, wherever he went, victory followed him; had he led the army in Sicily, the Athenians would have avoided disaster and, had his countrymen followed his advice at Aegospotami, Lysander would have lost and Athens would have ruled Greece. He was the last famous member of his mother's aristocratic family, the Alcmaeonidae, which fell from prominence after the Peloponnesian War. against Alcibiades the younger are preserved) or to the Socratic Aeschines (who wrote a famous dialogue dealing with Alcibiades) may have encouraged the assumption that it is the work of an other-wise unknown pupil of a sophist. [37] On the other hand, Alcibiades argued that a campaign in this new theatre would bring riches to the city and expand the empire, just as the Persian Wars had. [2] His performance is judged as skillful by historians, since it saved time, resources, and lives and still fully achieved his goal. Nicias and Alcibiades – the tale is a tragi-comedy. Early years. Alcibiades is one of the most famous (or infamous) characters of Classical Greece. He remained, however, a disturbing influence on Athenian politics and destroyed any hopes of a political consensus. [62], On his arrival in the local Persian court, Alcibiades won the trust of the powerful satrap and made several policy suggestions which were well received. [145] Therefore, Andocides said of him that "instead of holding that he ought himself to conform with the laws of the state, he expects you to conform with his own way of life". [55] By doing this, the Spartans cut the Athenians off entirely from their homes and crops and the silver mines of Sunium. [136], Plutarch asserts that "Alcibiades was a most able speaker in addition to his other gifts", while Theophrastus argues that Alcibiades was the most capable of discovering and understanding what was required in a given case. While Alcibiades was still en route, the two fleets clashed at Abydos, where the Peloponnesians had set up their main naval base. His property was confiscated and a reward of one talent was promised to whoever succeeded in killing any who had fled. In the case of the battle of Cyzicus, Robert J. Littman, professor at. His advice, whether to Athens or Sparta, oligarchs or democrats, was dictated by selfish motives, and the Athenians could never trust him enough to take advantage of his talents. According to Plutarch, the supposed purpose of this mission was to stop the Persian fleet from coming to the aid of the Peloponnesians. [85], Presently Alcibiades sailed to Tissaphernes with a detachment of ships. [g][96], The Spartan fleet suffered losses in the flight and reached the shore with the Athenians in close pursuit. [116] Alcibiades was aware the Spartan fleet was nearby, so he left nearly eighty ships to watch them under the command of his personal helmsman Antiochus, who was given express orders not to attack. [61] It is alleged that Astyochus, a Spartan Admiral, was sent orders to kill him, but Alcibiades received warning of this order and defected to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, who had been supporting the Peloponnesian forces financially in 412 BC. [98][99] A letter dispatched to Sparta by Hippocrates, vice-admiral under Mindarus, was intercepted and taken to Athens; it ran as follows: "The ships are lost. Alcibiades was recalled by the "intermediate regime" of The Five Thousand, the government which succeeded the Four Hundred in 411, but it is most likely that he waited until 407 BC to actually return to the city. [98] Never again returning to Athens, he sailed north to the castles in the Thracian Chersonese, which he had secured during his time in the Hellespont. Alcibiades responded in kind, sending to the authorities at Samos a letter against Phrynichus, stating what he had done, and requiring that he should be put to death. [119] Diodorus reports that, in addition to his mistake at Notium, Alcibiades was discharged on account of false accusations brought against him by his enemies. Historians Arnold W. Gomme and Raphael Sealey believe, and Thucydides reports,[26] that Alcibiades was offended that the Spartans had negotiated that treaty through Nicias and Laches, overlooking him on account of his youth. After the Battle of Aegospotami, Alcibiades crossed the Hellespont and took refuge in Hellespontine Phrygia, with the object of securing the aid of the Achaemenid King Artaxerxes against Sparta. [25]:207, Alcibiades's influence was further reduced after the retirement of Endius, the ephor who was on good terms with him. [122] Diodorus, however, does not mention this advice, arguing instead that Alcibiades offered the Generals Thracian aid in exchange for a share in the command. He took refuge in Phrygia in northwestern Asia Minor with the Persian governor, who was induced by the Spartans to have him murdered. [30] The representatives agreed and, impressed with Alcibiades, they alienated themselves from Nicias, who genuinely wanted to reach an agreement with the Spartans. Jump to navigation Jump to search. [162] Even the lisp he had, which was noticed by Aristophanes, made his talk persuasive and full of charm. [91], Shortly after the battle, Tissaphernes had arrived in the Hellespont and Alcibiades left the fleet at Sestos to meet him, bringing gifts and hoping once again to try to win over the Persian governor. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. During this period, Alcibiades succeeded in raising money from Caria and the neighboring area, with which he was able to pay the rowers and gain their favor. [117] Antiochus's ship was sunk, and he was killed by a sudden Spartan attack; the remaining ships of the decoy force were then chased headlong back toward Notium, where the main Athenian force was caught unprepared by the sudden arrival of the whole Spartan fleet. He demanded an immediate inquiry, but his enemies, led by Androcles (the successor of Hyperbolus), ensured that he sailed with the charge still hanging over him. [35], In 415 BC, delegates from the Sicilian city of Segesta (Greek: Egesta) arrived at Athens to plead for the support of the Athenians in their war against Selinus. His bride brought with her a large dowry, which significantly increased Alcibiades' already substantial family fortune. [133] Plutarch regards him as "the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of human beings". [82] Thucydides is in agreement with Plutarch that the Persian fleet was at Aspendus and that Alcibiades told the troops he would bring the fleet to their side or prevent it from coming at all, but Thucydides further speculates that the real reason was to flaunt his new position to Tissaphernes and try to gain some real influence over him. for Deserting the Ranks (ii.) [101] Although unable to attain a decisive victory or induce the city to surrender, Alcibiades was able to win a small tactical land battle outside of the city gates and Theramenes concluded an agreement with the Chalcedonians. The dialogue. That treaty, an uneasy truce between Sparta and Athens signed midway through the Peloponnesian War, came at the end of seven years of fighting during which neither side had gained a decisive advantage. [58] Even more critically, Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos, professors of strategic studies and international politics, state that Alcibiades's own arguments "should be sufficient to do away with the notion that Alcibiades was a great statesman, as some people still believe". Alcibi… Throughout his life, he remained excessively … [58] Leotychides, the son born by Agis's wife Timaea, Queen of Sparta, shortly after this, was believed by many to be Alcibiades's son. Both boys were a handful. The younger male was expected to follow a code of behavior that is taught to girls these days, i.e., not to be sexually aggressive, to resist sexual advances, and not to give in too easily. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. [159] He intended to conquer Carthage and Libya, then to attack Italy and, after winning these, to seize Italy and Peloponnesus. Well-born and wealthy, Alcibiades was only a small boy when his father—who was in command of the Athenian army—was killed in 447 or 446 bc, at Coronea, Boeotia. The next significant part he would play in the war would occur at the Battle of Abydos. Alcibiades, as the younger, handsome man, would be expected to be the loved one of Socrates, and Socrates would be expected to pursue him in order to gain sexual gratification. Plutarch explains that Androcles, a political leader, used false witnesses who accused Alcibiades and his friends of mutilating the statues, and of profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries. Paparrigopoulos, Konstantinos (-Pavlos Karolidis) (1925), This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 10:23. [83], At his first speech to the assembled troops, Alcibiades complained bitterly about the circumstances of his exile, but the largest part of the speech consisted of boasting about his influence with Tissaphernes. At his urging, the satrap reduced the payments he was making to the Peloponnesian fleet and began delivering them irregularly. Statements. Alcibiades responded by attacking Nicias for trying to divide the old from the young. 1941), "Alcibiades I, by Plato (see Appendix I)", "Comparison of Alcibiades with Coriolanus", "Alcibiades was an Athenian general in the Peloponnesian War", "Alcibiades: Aristocratic Ideal or Antisocial Personality Disorder", "Good Man, Bad Man, Traitor: Aspects of Alcibiades", "Thucydides and Civil War: the Case of Alcibiades", "Alcibiades, Athens, and the Human Condition in Thucydides' History", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcibiades&oldid=1002858430, Ancient Greek emigrants to the Achaemenid Empire, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, "Men do not rest content with parrying the attacks of a superior, but often strike the first blow to prevent the attack being made.

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